Transformations of the American Indian stereotype in the media discourse of the United States
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.28925/2311-259x.2025.2.5Keywords:
ethnic stereotype, US media discourse, American Indian, stereotype transformations, periodization of changesAbstract
Media discourse functions as an intermediary in propagating and changing of stereotypes. Stereotypes are linguistically expressed through lexical units that classify and elucidate categories within the social realm, along with utterances that either assign or refute particular attributes to individuals and groups. Ethnic stereotypes arise in the process of communication among individuals from different cultural backgrounds in the perspective their external and behavioral distinctions. The significance of examining transformations in the verbal expression of ethnic stereotypes within media discourse is conditioned by their influential role in shaping perceptions of ethnic groups and facilitating effective communication. This article aims to showcase the findings of the study of changes in the verbal representation of the ethnic stereotype of American Indians within US media discourse in its diversity, represented by periodicals, print and digital publications, films and advertising. The novelty of the work lies in the study of changes in the media portrayal of American Indians, particularly the connotative alterations in their designations and the shifting evaluations of this ethnic group in American media narratives. The research methodology is based on a discourse-centered approach, which regards communication as a social interaction within the historically formed system of human knowledge. Content analysis, contextual and interpretive analysis, and linguocultural analysis were applied in the research. As a result of the research, 3 stages of media stereotyping of American Indians in the diachronic aspect are identified. The first stage covers the formation and functioning of the negative stereotype of the savage. The second stage is characterised by ambivalence in the assessment of the stereotype of Indians. The third stage is defined by the recognition of the unfair treatment of Indians and respect for their cultural heritage. The perspective of further research is seen in the study of the transformations of verbalized ethnic stereotypes in other linguistic cultures and the study of the influence of ethnic stereotypes on discursive practices and intercultural communication.
Downloads
References
A Frontier Ranch. (1894, January 31). The Wichita Daily Eagle, 3.
Allaire, C. (2018, May 30). How 6 Indigenous Designers Are Using Fashion to Reclaim Their Culture. Vogue. https://www.vogue.com/article/indigenous-fashion-designerscultural-appropriation-activism
Bartmiński, J. (1988). Kryteria ilościowe w badaniu stereotypów językowych. Biuletyn Polskiego Towarzystwa Językoznawczego, 41, 91–104.
Bartmiński, J. (2017). What does it mean for stereotypes to “reside in language”? In A. Dąbrowska, W. Pisarek, & G. Sticke (Eds.), Stereotypes and Linguistic Prejudices in Europe (pp. 115–137). Research Institute for Linguistics Hungarian Academy of Sciences.
Bartmiński, J., & Panasiuk, J. (1993). Stereotypy jçzykowe. W J. Bartmiński (Red.), Encyklopedia kultury polskiej XX wieku. Współczesny język polski (s.s. 363–387). Wiedza o kulturze.
Beaujon, A. (2020, July 13). It’s Time to Retire “Hail to the Redskins”, Too. The Washingtonian. https://www.washingtonian.com/2020/07/13/its-time-to-retire-hail-to-the-redskins-too/
Belson, K. (2020, July 16). Redskins Cling to Team’s Name but Erase Former Owner’s. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/24/sports/football/redskins-ring-of-fame- marshall.html
Colorado Sage Cologne. (1979). Sitting Bull would have stand up for it. [Leaflet Advertisement]. https://www.ebay.com/itm/405793550777
Dalzell, T., & Victor, T. (Eds.) (2013). The New Partridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English. 2nd ed. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315672229
Dentyne chewing gum. (1937). Envy the savage? Yeas! [Leaflet advertisement]. https://www.tias.com/1937-dentyne-gum-with-envy-the-savage-340698.html
Dr. Scott’s Electric Hair Brush. (1898). Will not save an Indian’s scalp… [Leaflet advertisement]. https://www.reddit.com/r/vintageads/comments/4j6hm3/1898_dr_scotts_electric_hair_brush_advertisement
Drapper, W. R. (1901, April 13). Geronemo; A Good Indian. Appache Chief as a Prisoner. The Devenport Times, 9. https://www.newspapers.com/image/300079644
Fiske, S. T. (2017). Prejudices in cultural contexts: shared stereotypes (gender, age) versus variable stereotypes (race, ethnicity, religion). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(5), 791–799. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617708204
Foreign Paupers and Naturalization Laws. (1838, August 11). The Native American, 1. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn86053569/1838-08-11/ed-1/?sp=1
Gleaton, S. R. (1999, October 31). Sharing Traditions. The Times and Democrat, 25. https://www.newspapers.com/image/343876790
Hall, S. (2005). What is this ‘black’ in black popular culture? In D. Morley, & K.-H. Chen (Eds.), Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies (pp. 468–478). Routledge.
Halloween Provides Impressive Link with Past. (1932, October 30). The Charlotte Observer, 22. https://www.newspapers.com/image/617330220
Hamilton, D., Gibbons, P., Stroessner, S., & Sherman, J. (1992). Stereotypes and Language Use. Language, Interaction and Social Cognition (pp. 102–128). SAGE Publications.
Hendrix, S. (2018, October 19). President Trump Uses ‘Pocahontas’ as Slur. The Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/nation/nationnow/la-na-pocahontas-trump-slur-20181019-story.html
Hlavatska, Y. (2023). Linguistic aspects of personal identity research: theoretical grounds. The case study of the literary biography by W. Isaacson “Steve Jobs: Biography”. Synopsis: text, context, media, 29(3), 213–219. https://doi.org/10.28925/2311-259x.2023.3.8
Hoad, T. F. (Ed.) (2000). Oxford Concise Dictionary of English Etymology. Shanghai Foreign Language Press.
Hrybok, O. (2014). Obiektyvizatsiia linhvokulturnykh stereotypiv u nimetskomovnomu pobutovomu dyskursi [Objectification of linguistic and cultural stereotypes in German-speaking daily discourse] [Abstract of the dissertation of the candidate of philological sciences; V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University]. https://foreign-languages.karazin.ua/resources/57a53967dd285f0fc866650970c30bce.pdf
Kovalchuk, L. (2017). Kontekst ta kontekstualnist u suchasnomu anhlomovnomu khudozhnomu dyskursi [Context and Contextuality in Modern English Literary Discourse] [Abstract of the dissertation of the candidate of philological sciences; Lesya Ukrainka Eastern European National University; Zaporizhzhia National University]. http://evnuir.vnu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/17911
Landry, A. (2016, June 28). Theodore Roosevelt: ‘The Only Good Indians Are the Dead Indians’. Indian Country Today. https://ictnews.org/archive/theodore-roosevelt-the-only-good-indians-are-the-dead-indians/
Lawton, L. (2016). Reconsidering the Use of Gender Stereotypes in Medieval Romance: Figures of Vulnerability and of Power. Miranda, 12. https://doi.org/10.4000/miranda.8646
Levon, E. (2014). Categories, Stereotypes, and the Linguistic Perception of Sexuality. Language in Society, 43(5), 539–566. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404514000554
Loh, J. (1973, August 26). What Melting Pot? America, Never One People, Goes “Ethnic”. The Miami Herald, 36. https://www.newspapers.com/image/625852648
Lyubymova, S. (2022). Nomen Est Omen Socialis. Designation as means of stereotyping. Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, Philologica, 14(2), 116–133. https://doi.org/10.2478/ausp-2022-0019
MacCausland, T. (1972, Junу 6). Today Indians are huddled, surrounded by the whites. Chippewa Herald-Telegram, 2. https://www.newspapers.com/image/417042936
Martin, A. (2017, November 28). Trump’s ‘Pocahontas’ insult makes a mockery of Native Americans’ diverse history. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/trump-s-pocahontas-insult-makes-mockery-native-americans-diverse-history-ncna824471
Matsko, L. (2011). Linhvokulturolohichnyi analiz khudozhnoho tekstu [Linguocultural analysis of a literary text]. Kultura slova, 75, 56–66. http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/37180
Mieder, W. (1993). “The only good Indian is a dead Indian”: History and meaning of a proverbial stereotype. The Journal of American Folklore, 106(419), 38–60. https://doi.org/10.2307/541345
Miranda, C. A. (2018, January 29). It’s not just Chief Wahoo. Why American Indian images became potent, cartoonish advertising symbols. The Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/arts/miranda/la-et-cam-americans-nmai-indians-in-pop-culture-20180122-htmlstory.html
Mr. Andre Chenier’s Letter. (1792, August 1). Gazette of the United-States, 1. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83030483/1792-08-01/ed-1/?sp=1
Nagle, R. (2018, July 18). Research reveals media role in stereotypes about Native Americans. Women’s Media Center. https://womensmediacenter.com/news-features/research-reveals-media-role-in-stereotypes-about-native-americans
Nicmanis, M. (2024). Reflexive Content Analysis: An Approach to Qualitative Data Analysis, Reduction, and Description. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 23. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069241236603
North-West of the River Ohio. (1792, March 1). National Gazette, 1. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83025887/1792-03-01/ed-1/?sp=1
Only One Squaw for Big Braves. (1896, March 8). The Morning Times, 3, 18. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn84024442/1896-03-08/ed-1/?sp=18
Panton, K. J. (2022). Historical Dictionary of the United States. Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group. https://doi.org/10.5771/9781538124208
Pfeiffer, J. (1976, April 11). Noble savages. The New York Times, 226. https://www.nytimes.com/1976/04/11/archives/noble-savages-man-in-africa.html
Pioneer Days. (1922, June 11). The Evening Star, 73. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83045462/1922-06-11/ed-1/?sp=73
Project Y Salutes American Indians. (1968, June 9). San Antonio Express, 157. https://www.newspapers.com/image/82794705
Quinn, K. A., Macrae, C. N., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2007). Stereotyping and impression formation: How categorical thinking shapes person perception (pp. 68–92). The Sage Handbook of Social Psychology. Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781848608221.n4
Review of the Session of Congress. (1795, March 4). Gazette of the United States and Daily Evening Advertiser, 2. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn84026271/1795-03-04/ed-1/?sp=2
Roblee. (1940, September 30). Roblee Redskins [Advertisement]. Life. http://www.weirduniverse.net/blog/comments/follies_of_the_mad_men_44
Royal Crown Cola (1955). Honest Injun! [Leaflet advertisement]. https://www.historyonthenet.com/authentichistory/diversity/native/
Scher, B. (2019, August 27). “Pocahontas” Could Still Be Elizabeth Warren’s Biggest Vulnerability. The Politico Magazine. https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2019/08/27/pocahontas-elizabeth-warrens-biggest-vulnerability-227912/
Shutova, M. (2016). Etnokulturni stereotypy v anhliiskii ta ukrainskii movakh: rekonstruktsiia i typolohiia [Ethnocultural Stereotypes in English and Ukrainian: Reconstruction and Typology] [Abstract of the dissertation of Doctor of Philological Sciences; Kyiv National Linguistic University].
State of American Indians. (1793, May 11). Gazette of the United-States, 1. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83030483/1793-05-11/ed-1
Tajfel, H. (1981). Social stereotypes and social groups. In J. C. Turner, & H. Giles (Eds.), Intergroup Behavior (pp. 144–167). Basil Blackwell.
That North American Indian. (1891, June 26). Minco Minstrel, 1. https://www.newspapers.com/image/612034338
The Ghost Dance: How the Indians Work Themselves up to Fighting Pitch. (1890, November 22). The New York Times, 1. https://www.nytimes.com/1890/11/22/archives/the-ghost-dance-how-the-indians-work-themselves-up-to-fighting.html
The Indian Day in the U.S. (1923, September 6). The Gazette, 3. https://www.newspapers.com/image/548703775
Tributes to Indians. (1905, August 27). Evening Star, 27. https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83045462/1905-08-27/ed-1/?sp=27
Vargas, Th. (2014, June 18). U.S. patent office cancels Redskins trademark registration, says name is disparaging. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/us-patent-office-cancels-redskins-trademark-registration-says-name-is-disparaging/2014/06/18/e7737bb8-f6ee-11e3-8aa9-dad2ec039789_story.html
Walker, M. (2021, February 18). Native Americans “Left Out in the Cold” Under Trump Press Biden for Action. The New York Times. https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.nytimes.com/2021/02/18/us/politics/native-americans-biden.amp.html?espv=1
Whence Came the Indian. (1903, January 29). The Topeka Daily Herald, 4. https://www.newspapers.com/image/387433250
Wise, M. (2004, July 18). Navajo Leslie Chases the Legend of Billy Mills. The Washington Post, 9. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A58266-2004Jul17.html
Yang, J. (2014, March 29). Steven Colbert. Racism and the Weaponized Hashtag. The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/BL-SEB-80544
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Світлана Любимова
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
